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United Nations Organizations

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United Nations - Most Important Points for UPSC and other State services examinations
United Nations - Most Important Points for UPSC and other State services examinations

United Nations Organizations

Most Important Points about United Nations Organizations

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United Nations Organizations

United Nations - Some Facts
  • It is an international organization founded in 1945 after the World War II with the aim to prevent such global conflicts in future.
  • Mission - To maintain international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and promoting social progress and protecting human rights.
  • Its Headquarter is in New York.
  • Official Languages - There are six official languages of UN. They are :
    • Arabic
    • Chinese
    • English
    • French
    • Spanish
    • Russian
  • Members - 193  Members
  • Secretary General - Antonio Guterres (Portugal)
Organs of United Nations
  • United Nations - Most Important Points for UPSC and other State services examinationsUnited Nations has five principal organs:
    1. General Assembly
    2. United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
    3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
    4. International Court of Justice(ICJ)
    5. UN Secretariat.

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Classical Dances of India | Art and Culture Short Notes

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Kathak Dance

Classical Dances of India

Classical Dances of India short notes for UPSC Prelims, State PSCs Prelims and Other Examinations.

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Classical Dances of India are the traditional Indian dance forms whose origin can be traced from the Sanskrit text – ‘Natya Shastra’ by Bharata Muni. 

The ‘Natya Shastra’ is one of the oldest surviving ancient Indian works on performance arts.

It describes in detail the technique, postures, emotions, ornaments and even audience for dance performances.

‘Natya Shastra’ defines two basic aspects of Indian Classical Dances – Lasya and Tandava.

Lasya :

  • It symbolizes the feminine features of a dance.
  • It expresses happiness and is filled with grace and beauty.

Tandava :

  • It symbolizes the male aspect of dance.
  • It also symbolizes the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction.

Main components of Classical Dances:

There are three main components of Indian Classical Dances.

  • Natya ( Dramatic element of the dance i.e. the imitation of characters)
  • Nritya ( Expressional component i.e. Mudras or gestures) 
  • Nritta ( Pure dance movements in their basic form)

Classical Dances in India are recognized by Sangeet Natak Academy and the Ministry of Culture.

The Sangeet Natak Academy recognizes eight Classical Dances :

  • Bharatanatyam
  • Kathak
  • Kuchipudi
  • Odissi
  • Kathakali
  • Sattriya
  • Manipuri
  • Mohiniyattam

The Ministry of Culture recognizes nine Classical Dances. It includes ‘Chhau’ in its list of classical dances.

Bharatnatyam:

  • Bharatnatyam – Oldest classical dance.
  • State – Tamilnadu
  • Also known as ‘Ekaharya’, as one dancer takes on many roles in a single performance.
  • Symbolizes the element of fire as movements in Bharatanatyam resemble a dancing flame.

Kathak:

  • Traditional dance which traces its origin back to the Ras Leela of Brajbhoomi. 
  • State – Uttar Pradesh
  • Derives its name from “Kathika” meaning storytellers.
  • Only Indian classical dance which has a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim traditions.
  • Known for the development of different Gharanas (Lucknow, Jaipur, Raigarh, Banaras).
  • Only classical dance based on Hindustani style of music.
  • Important feature – ‘Jugalbandi’ ( A competitive play between the dancer and the tabla player ).

Odissi:

  • State – Odisha 
  • Symbolizes the element of water.
  • Two styles of traditional Odissi :
    • Maharis (Devadasis or Temple Girls).
    • Gotipua ( Performed by Boys).
  • The dancers create intricate geometrical shapes and patterns with her body.
  • It is characterized by various Bhangas (Stance) – Two basic postures are Chowk (imitating a square) and the Tribhanga.

Kathakali:

  • State – Kerala 
  • Blend of dance, music and acting (‘Katha’ meaning story and ‘Kali’ meaning drama).
  • Symbolizes the element of sky.
  • The dancers enact the roles (kings, gods, demons etc.) of the stories with particular make-up and costume.

Mohiniattam:

  • State – Kerala
  • Classical solo dance performed by women. 
  • It is interpreted as the dance of ‘Mohini’, the female form taken by God Vishnu to kill Bhasmasura. 
  • Symbolizes elements of air.

Kuchipudi:

  • Originated in Kuchipudi village, Krishna district of modern Andhra Pradesh.
  • This dance form has emerged from the popular theatrical art ‘Kuchipudi Yakshagana’ .
  • It comprises techniques such as dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head called Tarangam.

Sattriya:

  • State – Assam
  • Introduced by the great Vaishnava saint, Sankaradeva for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
  • It grew as a part of Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Hindu Monasteries called ‘Sattra’ and has been preserved by them.
  • Main themes of the dance are mostly on Radha-Krishna and other myths.
  • Performed by both male and female.

Manipuri:

  • State – Manipur
  • This dance gained prominence under the advent of Vaishnavism.
  • Most popular forms of Manipuri dance are : Ras, Sankirtana and Thang-Ta.
  • The themes in Manipuri are mostly influenced by Hindu Vaishnavism. The main theme revolves around Radha, Krishna and the gopis.

Chhau Dance:

  • State – Jharkhand, West Bengal
  • Chhau is a blend of folk, tribal and martial arts.
  • It has three different types originated from three different regions :
    • Seraikella Chhau 
    • Mayurbhanj Chhau 
    • Purulia Chhau

Also Read in Art and Culture Short Notes :

Pre-Historic Period : Most Important Points

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Pre-Historic Period
Pre-Historic Period

Pre-Historic Period : Most Important points

Most important points about pre-historic period/stone age in India

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Pre-historic Period - Most Important Points for Prelims

What is the Prehistoric period ?
  • Stone AgePrehistoric period refers to the time before the emergence of writing
  • Divided into:
    • Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
    • Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
    • Neolithic (New Stone Age)
    • Metal Age.
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
  • Pre-Historic PeriodTimeline - From 2 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago.
  • Further divided into the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic ages.
  • People were hunter-gatherers.
  • Stone implements were made of Quartzite.
  • Important Paleolithic sites in India are Lingsugur in Karnataka, Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, Attirampakkam near Chennai etc.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
  • Microliths of mesolithic periodTimeline - Falls roughly from 12000 B.C. to 6000 B.C.
  • Favorable changes happened in the climate.  Climate became warmer and humid which was favorable for growth of vegetation.
  • Primitive cultivation started.
  • Domestication of animals started. Earliest evidence is found from Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor of Rajasthan. 
  • Stone tools were smaller in size called Microliths.
  • Paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters. Best example - Bhimbetka.
Neolithic Age or New Stone age
  • MegalithsTimeline - Began around 6000 B.C .
  • Beginning of agriculture. Oldest evidence of Agriculture is found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.
  • Invention of the Potter’s Wheel - Manufacture of pottery.
  • First evidence of Cotton cultivation - Mehrgarh, Pakistan.
  • Settled life started.
  • Brick houses and Pit-houses (Burzahom , Kashmir) were in use.
  • Megaliths ( A large pre-historic stone structures) were erected.
Chalcolithic/Metal age
  • Dancing Girl of Harappa CivilizationNeolithic period was followed by the Chalcolithic/Metal age.
  • Humans began using metals along with stones.
  • Also called the ‘Copper-Stone’ age.
  • Grown along the river valleys.
  • Harappan culture is also considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture.

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Ancient History MCQs – 2 (Indus Valley Civilization)

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Ancient History MCQs

Ancient History MCQs – 2 (Indus Valley Civilization)

Indus Valley Civilization MCQs with answers and explanations for preparation of UPSC, BPSC, UPPSC and other State PSC Examinations

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1. First discovered site of the Indus Valley Civilization was ?

A. Harappa
B. Mohenjo Daro
C. Surkotada
D. Lothal

Correct answer – A ( Harappa ).

  • Harappa was the first discovered site of Indus Valley Civilization.
  • The civilization was also called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site.

2. Which of the following techniques was used for making a bronze statue of a dancing girl found from Harappa Civilisation ?

A. Stone carving technique
B. Wood carving technique
C. Carbon dating technique
D. Lost wax technique

Correct answer – D ( Lost wax technique ).

  • In Harappan Civilization, Bronze statues were made by the “Lost wax technique”.
  • This technique was used for making a bronze statue of a dancing girl found from Mohenjo Daro.

3. Which one of the following Indus Valley Sites is presently in India ?

A. Harappa
B. Sutkagendor
C. Mohenjo-Daro
D. Lothal

Correct answer – D ( Lothal )

  • Lothal is in Gujrat, India. This was a famous port-town of the Indus Valley civilization. An ancient dockyard has been found here.
  • Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Sutkagendor are presently in Pakistan.

4. Steatite figure of the bearded man interpreted as a priest or priest king has been found from which of the following places ?
A. Harappa
B. Sutkagendor
C. Mohenjodaro
D. Lothal

Correct answer – C ( Mohenjo-Daro ).

  • A Steatite figure of the bearded man interpreted as a priest or priest king has been found from Mohenjo-Daro.
  • Other important findings at Mohenjo-Daro:
    • Great bath
    • Granary
    • Bronze dancing girl
    • Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva

5. Who among the following was involved in the excavations of Mohenjo Daro ?
A. R.D. Banerjee
B. Raman Singh
C. James Prinsep
D. None of these

Correct answer – A ( R.D. Banerjee )

  • R.D. Banerjee was involved in the excavations of Mohenjo-daro.
  • He was an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.
  • He discovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922.

6. Which among the following animals was not represented on the seals of Harappan culture ?
A. Cow
B. Elephant
C. Bull
D. None of the above

Correct answer – A ( Cow )

  • The carvings on the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptors in Harappan culture.
  • The images of elephant, Rhino, Tiger, Deer etc. were depicted on the seals of Harappan culture however Cow, Horse were not depicted anywhere.

7. The Great bath was found from ?
A. Harappa
B. Roper
C. Mohenjodaro
D. Lothal

Correct answer – C ( Mohenjo-Daro ).

  • One of the important findings of Mohenjo-Daro was its Great Bath.
  • The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
  • There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank.
  • Mortars of gypsum were used to make the tank watertight.
  • There were rooms on three sides.
  • Scholars believe that it was used for some kind of ritual bathing.
  • It was found from Mohenjo-Daro( Presently in the Sindh region of Pakistan ).

8. Consider the following statements regarding Harappa Civilization :

1. Harappa was an urban civilization.
2. Harappans built houses with mud bricks.
3. Harappans cities had well developed drainage systems.

Which of the above statement (s) is/are correct ?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. All of the above
D. None of the above

Correct answer – B ( 1 and 3 only )

  • Harappan Civilization was the first urban civilization of India.
  • Harappans cities had well developed town planning and drainage systems.
  • Harappans built houses with burnt bricks.  Baked bricks of standardized ratio(length and breadth were four times and twice the height respectively) were used in construction.

9. Consider the following statements regarding Indus Valley sites :

  1. A row of six granaries have been found from Harappa.
  2. Chanhudaro is a City without Citadel.
  3. Fire-Altars have been found from Kalibangan .

Which of the above statement (s) is/are correct ?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. All of the above
D. None of the above

Correct answer – C ( All of the Above ).

  • A row of six granaries have been found from Harappa. Other findings at Harappa :
    • Granaries
    • Bullock carts
  • Chanhudaro is a City without Citadel. It is in Sindh province of Pakistan.
  • Fire-Altars have been found from Kalibangan. Kalibangan means Black Bangles. It is in present day Rajasthan.

10. Largest Indus Valley site in India is ?

A. Lothal
B. Rangpur
C. Rakhigarhi
D. None of the above

Correct answer – C ( Rakhigarhi ).

  • Largest Indus Valley site in India is Rakhigarhi.
  • It is located in the Hisar District of Haryana.

11. Traces of canals have been found at which among the following Harappan sites ?

(a) Lothal

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Banawali

(d) Shortughai

Correct Answer – (d) Shortughai

  • Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai located in Afghanistan.
  • Important findings at other sites:
  • Mohenjodaro
    • Great bath
    • Granary
    • Bronze dancing girl
    • Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
    • Steatite statue of beard man
  • Harappa
    • Granaries
    • Bullock carts
  • Chanhudaro
    • Bead makers shop
  • Kalibangan
    • Fire altar
    • Camel bones
    • Wooden plough
  • Lothal
    • First manmade port
    • Dockyard
    • Rice husk
    • Fire altars
  • Surkotada
    • Bones of horses
  • Dholavira
    • Water harnessing system
    • Large Water reservoirs
  • Banawali
    • Beads
    • Barley

12. Consider the following statements regarding the features of the Harappan settlements.

(i) The Harappan settlements were often divided into two parts, Citadela and Lower town

(ii) They had no large buildings

(iii) Harappan settlements had a well-planned network of roads.

(iv) Drainage system was the key feature of the Harappan settlements.

Which of the following statements is/are correct?

(a) I and II

(b) III and IV

(c) I, III and IV

(d) I, II and IV

Correct Answer – (c) I, III and IV

  • The Harappan Civilization was an urban settlement with a good sense of town planning.
  • The Harappan settlements were often divided into two parts, Citadel and Lower town.
  • Harappan settlements had a well-planned network of roads. Roads and streets were laid out along in a grid pattern, intersecting each other at right angles.
  • Harappan cities had a carefully planned drainage system.

Also Read in Ancient History MCQs :

Indian Polity MCQs – 2 (Making of Indian Constitution)

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Indian Polity MCQs and Mock Tests

Indian Polity MCQs – 2 (Making of Indian Constitution)

Making of Indian Constitution MCQs with answers and explanations for preparation of UPSC, BPSC, UPPSC and other State PSC Examinations

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Indian Polity Mini Tests

Indian Polity MCQs – 2 ( Making Of The Indian Constitution )

Indian Polity and Constitution

Syllabus - Making Of  The Indian Constitution

 

1 / 10

Q. Who was the permanent president of Constituent Assembly ?

 

2 / 10

Q. Who among the following was a member of the Constituent Assembly but not a member of Congress ?

 

3 / 10

Q. Who was the chairman of the drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly ?

 

4 / 10

Q. What was the duration in the making of Indian Constitution ?

5 / 10

Q. Who among the following moved the ‘Objective Resolution’ in the Constituent Assembly ?

6 / 10

Q. The proposal for framing of the Constitution of India by an elected Constituent Assembly was made by ?

7 / 10

Q. Consider the following statements regarding the composition of the Constituent Assembly :

  1. The total strength of the Constituent Assembly was 389.
  2. Each province and princely state were allotted seats in proportion to their respective population.
  3. Seats allocated to each British province were divided among the Four principal communities : Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Christian.
  4. The representatives of the princely states were nominated by the heads of the princely states.

Which of these statements is/are correct ?

8 / 10

Q. Consider the following statements regarding the Constituent Assembly :

  1. The Constituent Assembly was a fully elected body.
  2. Voting for the election of member of  Constituent assembly was done by the method of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.

Which of these statements is/are correct ?

9 / 10

Q. Consider the following statements regarding the Constituent Assembly :

  1. The chairman of the Drafting Committee was Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
  2. The chairman of the Union Constitution Committee Mahatma Gandhi.

Which of these statements is/are correct ?

10 / 10

Q. Consider the following statements regarding the Constituent Assembly :

  1. The chairman of the Steering Committee was Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
  2. The chairman of the Provincial Constitution Committee was Vallabhbhai Patel.
  3. The chairman of the Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee was J.B. Kripalani.

Which of these statements is/are correct ?

Your score is

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Ancient History MCQs – 1 (Pre-Historic Period)

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Ancient History MCQs

Ancient History MCQs – 1 (Pre-Historic Period)

Pre-Historic Period MCQs with answers and explanations for preparation of UPSC, BPSC, UPPSC and other State PSC Examinations

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Build Your Basics

1. Who coined the terms ‘Paleolithic’  ?

(a) John Marshall

(b) John Lubbock

(c) James Princip

(d) None of these

Correct answer – (b) John Lubbock

  • The term “Paleolithic” was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. 
  • He coined the terms “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic” to distinguish between the earlier and later Stone Age periods. 
  • In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age.

2. Consider the following statements:

  1. AD stands for two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’, meaning ‘In the year of the Lord’.
  2. Sometimes CE is used instead of AD and BCE instead of BC. The letters CE stand for ‘Common Era’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) None of these

Correct answer – (c) Both 1 and 2

  • In the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the years are counted from the date generally assigned to the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity.
  • All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually have the letters BC (Before Christ) or BCE ( Before Common Era).
  • All dates after the birth of Christ are counted forwards and usually have the letters AD (Anno Domini) or CE ( Common Era).

3. Consider the following pairs:

       Paleolithic Age Site           State
1.    Bhimbetka                           :  Madhya Pradesh
2.    Hunsgi                                  :  Karnataka
3.    Sarai Nahar Rai                   :  Bihar
4.    Chirand                                 :  Uttar Pradesh

Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4

(d) All of the above

Correct answer – (a) 1 and 2

  • Correct Match is:
    • Bhimbetka → Madhya Pradesh
    • Hunsgi  → Karnataka
    • Sarai Nahar Rai  → Uttar Pradesh
    • Chirand → Bihar

4. Bhimbetka caves show the continuity of human evolution from the Lower Palaeolithic Period to the Mesolithic period to the chalcolithic period. Why?

  1. It contains evidence of the use of tools and implements from all these periods.
  2. It contains written inscriptions from all these periods.

Which of the above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) None

Correct answer – (a) 1 only

  • In Bhimbetka caves, the continuity of human evolution from the Lower Paleolithic Period, Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic Period and to the Mesolithic period has been determined by the evidence of use of tools and implements from all these periods.
  • Bhimbetka is also famous for its rock shelter which contain some of the finest prehistoric cave paintings in South Asia. 
  • Bhimbetka is located on the southern edge of the Vindhya hills in MP. 
  • It is also an UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • It is to be noted that no written evidence has been found for prehistoric period.

5. The earliest evidence of domestication of animals has been found at Adamagarh. It is located in which of the following States ?

(a) Rajasthan

(b) Madhya Pradesh

(c) Gujarat

(d) Maharashtra

Correct answer – (b) Madhya Pradesh

  • Adamagarh is a Mesolithic site located in Madhya Pradesh.
  • The earliest evidence of domestication of animals has been found here.

6. What are the Megaliths ?

(a) Prehistoric rock cut caves

(b) Prehistoric stone structures or monuments

(c) Small Stone Tools

(d) Prehistoric Paintings

Correct answer – (b) Prehistoric stone structures or monuments

  • Megalith are the large prehistoric stones that were used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones.
  • The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South India.
  • Most megaliths were erected between the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period

7. What are the Microliths ?

(a) Prehistoric rock cut caves

(b) Prehistoric stone structures or monuments

(c) Tiny stone artifacts of Mesolithic Age

(d) Prehistoric Paintings

Correct answer – (c) Tiny stone artifacts of Mesolithic Age

  • In the sites of the Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found compared to the stone tools of Paleolithic age. 
  • These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size.
  • These are called microliths.
  • The domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation also started in the Mesolithic Age.

8. Consider the following major archaeological sites ranging from the Mesolithic age to the iron age in the Indian subcontinent. Match them with their respective locations in present day India:

  1. Koldihwa → Madhya Pradesh
  2. Mehrgarh → Haryana
  3. Paiyampalli → Tamil Nadu

Select the correct answer using the codes below. 

(a) 1 and 2 only 

(b) 3 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1 only

Correct answer – (b) 3 only

  • Koldihwa is located in present day UP. This site represents three occupational levels: the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Iron Age phases.
  • Mehrgarh is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley. It is now located in Pakistan. It is considered as the most sophisticated and planned ancient farm village of ancient India.
  • Paiyampalli is located in Tamil Nadu. It is known for the excavation remains of neolithic and megalithic periods.

9. Which of the following places is famous for prehistoric paintings?

(a) Ajanta

(b) Bhimbetka

(c) Bagh

(d) Amravati

Correct answer – (b) Bhimbetka

  • Best examples of prehistoric paintings in India – Bhimbetka, MP
  • Paintings of Ajanta and Bagh are related to the Post-Mauryan period.

10. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near :


(a)  Water sources
(b)  Deserts
(c)  Major urban centers
(d)  Mines

Correct answer – (a)  Water sources

  • Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered across the subcontinent. 
  • Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are:
    • The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau in northwest India.
    • The Siwalik hills in north India.
    • Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
    • Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
    • Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh
    • Attirampakkam near Chennai.
  • Most of these sites are located near water sources

11. A prehistoric site Gufkral is located in which state / Union Territory of India?

(a) Jammu and Kashmir

(b) Bihar

(c) Uttar Pradesh

(d) Rajasthan

Correct answer – (a) Jammu and Kashmir

  • Gufkral, meaning ‘the cave of the potter’ is an important Neolithic site located in Jammu and Kashmir.
  • It has evidence of Pit dwellings.

12. The earliest evidence of rice cultivation comes from which among the following river valleys ?

(a) Ganga Valley

(b) Belan Valley

(c) Bolan Valley

(d) Narmada Valley

Correct answer – (b) Belan Valley

  • Belan river Originates from Western part of Sonbhadra district of Uttar Pradesh.
  • It is famous for the prehistoric sites found on its banks.
  • It is one of the regions where the earliest evidence of rice cultivation has been found.

Also Read in Ancient History MCQs :

Indian Polity MCQs – 1 ( Historical Background of Constitution)

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Indian Polity MCQs and Mock Tests

Indian Polity MCQs – 1 ( Historical Background of Constitution)

Historical Background of Constitution MCQs with answers and explanations for preparation of UPSC, BPSC, UPPSC and other State PSC Examinations

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Indian Polity MCQs 1 - Historical Background of Constitution

Syllabus - Historical Background of Constitution

Resource to Study :  Historical Background of Constitution

1 / 7

Q. Which among the following was the first attempt by the British Parliament to regulate the affairs of English East India Company?

 

2 / 7

Q. Which one of the following acts designated the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India.

3 / 7

Q. Consider the following statements about the Morley-Minto reforms :

  1. Provincial legislative councils came to have non-official majority.
  2. The discussion on budget including supplementary questions was allowed for the first time.
  3. Muslims were given separate electorate.

Which of the statements above is/are correct?

 

4 / 7

Q. Which of the following statements is/are true about the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms ?

  1. It was declared for the first time that gradual introduction of responsible government is the objective.
  2. Central and provincial subjects were separated for the first time.
  3. Both bicameralism and direct elections were introduced for the first time.

Select the right answer using codes below:

 

5 / 7

Q. Which of the following acts separated the legislative and executive functions of the governor-general Council for the first time ?

 

6 / 7

Q. Which of the following are the features of the Regulating Act of 1773?

  1. It is provided for the establishment of Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774).
  2. It created executive council for Governor General of Bengal.
  3. It made the governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies subordinate to the Governor General of Bengal.
  4. It established Board of Control for managing Political Affairs.

7 / 7

Q. What were the salient features of Government of India Act 1935?

1) Provincial autonomy
2) Dyarchy at the centre
3) Abolition of dyarchy in Provinces

Your score is

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Marriages in Vedic Period | Ancient history notes

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Types of marriages in Vedic Period

Read about the Different types of marriages in Vedic Period.

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Table of Contents

Introduction :

The Vedic period is the period in the history of India when the Vedas were composed. This period started with the arrival of Aryans to north-western parts of India.

The timeline Vedic Period is considered from 1500 BC to 600 BC which is divided into two parts :

Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period → 1500 B.C -1000 B.C
Later Vedic Period → 1000B.C – 600 B.C

The Vedas composed during this time are the main source of information about this period.

The Ashrama System became well established during this period.

As per the Ashrama system, the whole life of 100 years was divided into 4 Ashrams.

They were :
Brahamcharya Ashram → Student life → Upto 25 years of age
Grihastha Ashram → Family life while discharging the worldly duties such as Marriage, Giving birth to children and raising them → From 25 to 50 years of Age
Vanaprastha Ashram → Partial retirement worldly affairs → From 50 to 75 years of Age
Sanyas Ashram → Complete retirement from the world → From 75 to 100 years of Age.

Marriage was the most important event of Grihastha Ashram. Different types of marriages performed in Vedic period are discussed below:

Type of marriage based on marriage type :

Type of marriage based on marriage type:

Type of marriageDescription
Brahma VivahMarriage of a girl with the boy of same Varna while observing all the Vedic rites and rituals along with dowry
Daiva VivahFather donated his daughter to a priest as a part of Dakshina
Arsha VivahGiving the girl to a man after accepting the bride price
Prajapatya VivahMarriage without dowry
Gandharva VivahLove marriage
Asura VivahMarriage by Purchase of bride
Paisach VivahMarriage to a girl after seducing or raping her
Rakshasha VivahMarriage by abduction of girl

Types of marriage based on Varna system :

Anuloma Vivah

The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from lower Varna was called “Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the sacred texts.

Pratiloma Vivah

The marriage of a girl of higher Varna with a man of a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah”. It was NOT allowed in the texts.

Gotra System :

The institution of Gotra first appeared in the Vedic period to signify the descent from a common ancestor. 

Gotras were named after legendary sages like Kashyapa, Bharadvaja, Shandilya, Gautama, Bhrigu, Bhargav, Vashista, Vishvamitra etc.

Marriage was prohibited between persons belonging to the same Gotra.

We this, we conclude this topic here. 

You can read more about the Vedic Period here :

Vedic Literature : Read Now
Rig Vedic Period : Read Now
Later Vedic Period : Read Now  

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Later Vedic Period | Ancient History Short Notes

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Introduction :

In the last article of the ancient history series, we studied the Rig Vedic period. With the help of Vedic texts, we got a fair idea about the polity, society, religion and economic activities of that period.

In this article, we will study the same features of the Later Vedic period.

As we already know, The period from 1500 BC to 600 BC is considered as Vedic Period which is divided into two parts :

  • Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) 
  • Later Vedic Period (1000B.C – 600 B.C). 

During the Rig Vedic period the Aryans were mostly confined to the region called ‘Sapta Saindhava’ which included Afghanistan, Swat Valley of Punjab and some parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain.  

In the Later Vedic Period  (1000-600 B.C),  Aryans further moved towards the various sites of upper and middle Gangetic plains.

Painted grey pottery has been extensively found from these sites due to which these sites are also called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites and their culture is also known as PGW culture. 

It was succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware from 600-500 BCE associated with the rise of the great Mahajanapadas. We will study about the Mahajanapadas period in next article.

Political Organization in Later Vedic Period :

Later Vedic period saw the gradual formation of larger kingdoms. Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form the large janapadas or rashtras.

Royal power also increased along with the size of the kingdoms. Power and prestige of the king increased gradually and he became the master of all subjects.

The kings assumed various titles like Ahilabhuvanapathi (Lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (The Sole ruler) to mark their absolute power.

King(Rajan, Samrat) performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position eg. Rajasuya (Consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (Horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (Chariot race).

Administration in Later Vedic Period :

In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials became involved in the administration in addition to the existing officials like Purohita, Senani and Gramani.

Some of the new officials included the Treasurer (Samagrahitri), Collector of taxes(Bhagadugha), Mediator in Disputes ( Madhyamasi), Accountant (Akshvapa) and royal messenger.

At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies, however the importance of Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period.

In the Later Vedic Period, power of Gramani increased as he now had both civil and military powers. In fact, Gramani was the medium through which the royal power was exercised in the village.

Social Life in Later Vedic Period :

Many changes of great importance happened during the later Vedic period. 

The most important among them was the evolution of the Varna System(which is still prevalent as a caste system).

The four divisions of society – Brahmins (Priests), Kshatriyas(Rulers), Vaisyas (Agriculturists, traders and artisans) and Sudras were clearly established in the Later Vedic period. 

The two higher classes – Brahmana and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisyas and Shudras. 

The vaisyas were superior to the sudras however their position was gradually deteriorating.

The condition of the Sudras was very miserable. Their work was to serve the other three castes.

The Ashrama System also became well established during this period.  As per the Ashrama  system, the whole life of 100 years was divided into 4 Ashrams. They were :

  1. Brahamcharya Ashram ( student life ): Upto  25 years of age
  2. Grihastha Ashram ( Family life while discharging the worldly duties such as giving birth to children and raising them ): From 25 to 50 years of Age
  3. Vanaprastha Ashram ( Partial retirement  worldly affairs ): From 50 to 75 years of Age
  4. Sanyas Ashram (Complete retirement from the world): From 75 to 100 years of Age.

In the family, the power of the father increased however there was no improvement in the status of women. Women were considered inferior and subordinate to men. They also lost their political rights of attending assemblies.

However, the women of royal families enjoyed certain privileges. 

Women and the sudras had no right to property. The eldest son would inherit the property of the deceased father.

Child marriages became common in this period. Birth of a daughter became undesirable. 

The institution of Gotra also appeared in the later Vedic age to signify the descent from a common ancestor. 

Gotras were named after legendary sages like Kashyapa, Bharadvaja, Shandilya, Gautama, Bhrigu, Bhargav, Vashista, Vishvamitra etc.

Marriage was prohibited between persons belonging to the same Gotra.

With this, We have completed the study of Indus Valley Civilisation. 

Revision is the key to success in Civil Services exam. We understand this very well. Therefore we have included a list of MCQs with detailed explanation from this chapter. 

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In the next Chapter, we will study about the Mahajanpadas.

You can study complete ancient history in a chapterwise format here : Ancient History Chapter-wise notes

You can solve ancient history chapterwise MCQs here : Ancient History Chapter-wise MCQs

You can read all the CivilsCracker Explained articles for Ancient History here :  CivilsCracker Explained

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Rig Vedic / Early Vedic Period | Ancient History Short Notes

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Introduction :

By now, we already know that the great Harappan civilization was followed by another great era in Indian history known as the Vedic age/culture/civilization. 

The Vedic texts are the primary sources for the reconstruction of the Vedic culture. In the last article, we studied in detail about the Vedic Literature. 

In this article we will study about the various aspects of vedic period like Social and political life, Religion, Economic condition etc.

But first, let’s see the timeline of vedic age. Having a broad overview of the timeline will always help you in linking the historical events to one another and make a better understanding of the chronology.

Timeline :

The period from 1500 BC to 600 BC is considered as Vedic Period which is divided into two parts :

  • Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) 
  • Later Vedic Period (1000B.C – 600 B.C). 

During the Rig Vedic period the Aryans were mostly confined to the region called ‘Sapta Saindhava’ which included Afghanistan, Swat Valley of Punjab and some parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain.  The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.  

Political Organization :

During Rig-Vedic era, the basic unit of political organization was Kula or family. The head of the family was a Kulapa. 

Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama which was controlled by a village headman Gramini. 

A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu(clan) which was headed by Vishayapati. 

Many clans made a community called Jana which was the highest political unit.

The Chief of this tribe Jana was Rajana who was the protector of the tribe and the cattle wealth. He fought wars on behalf of his Jana. These wars were for control of cattle wealth. 

The king was assisted by Purohita and Senani ( commander of the army ) in his administration. There was no special officer for justice however spies were employed to keep an eye on theft or burglary.

There were two important bodies called the Sabha and Samiti. Sabha seems to have been a council of elders and advised the king on administration. Samiti, a general assembly, included common people.

Vidatha which also appears frequently in Rig veda, was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, performing all kinds of functions – economic, military, religious and social. 

There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period, such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The concept of land territory was absent in the early Rig-Vedic period and The king did not maintain any regular or standing army.

Society :

The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family which was called Graham and the head of family was known as Grahapathi. 

Monogamy was prevalent whereas polygamy was also practiced among the royal and noble families.

Women were provided with equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. We find mention of many women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Women could even attend the popular assemblies. The practices of child marriage and sati were absent.

Gurukulas imparted education to the disciples after their sacred thread ceremony. Entire instruction was given orally.

Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women. 

Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. Alcoholic as well as Non-alcoholic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura(intoxicating) were the two popular liquors.

Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite pastimes. 

The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was based on occupation

Religion

The Rig Vedic Aryans personified the natural forces  like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder as gods and worshipped them. 

The hymns of the Rig-Veda were mainly sung for the glorification of these gods in order to appease them. Gods were regarded as the protector of men and giver of happiness.

The important Rig Vedic gods were:

Indra –  Most important God and was also known as Purandara (the destroyer of forts) and God of rain.

 Agni (Fire) –  Second in importance. He  was regarded as the intermediary between the Gods and the worshipper.

Varuna (Rain) – He was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. 

Vayu  – Wind

 Maruts – storm

There were also  few female gods like Aditi and Ushas. 

There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. 

Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards(not meant for the spiritual uplift). Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings and elaborate rituals were followed during the worship.

Economic Condition

The Rig Vedic Aryans were primarily pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle as cattle was synonymous with wealth. 

The gifts to the priests were also in terms of number of Cows.

The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were aware of the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various agricultural seasons. 

As they were aware about the use of iron, they used it to clean forests and brought more lands under cultivation.

Carpentry was an important profession. The availability of wood from the forests that were cleared made Carpentry a flourishing profession. Carpenters produced various kinds of chariots and ploughs. 

Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper (was known as ‘Ayas’), bronze and iron ( was known as Krishna Ayas). Spinning and pottery were another important occupation.

Goldsmiths were active in ornament making. Gold was known as ‘Hiranya’.

Trade was an important economic activity which was conducted through the barter system. In the later times, gold coins known as ‘Nishka’ were also used as a medium of exchange.

This completes our study of Rig Vedic Period.

Revision is the key to success in Civil Services exam. We understand this very well. Therefore we have included a list of MCQs with detailed explanation.

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In the next chapter we will study salient features of Later Vedic period(Social and political life, Religion, Economic condition etc.).

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